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The Great Psychotherapy Debate: Since in April, 2015 I review parts of The Great Psychotherapy Debate (Wampold & Imel, 2015) in the PPRNet Blog. This is the second edition of a landmark, and sometimes controversial, book that surveys the evidence for what makes psychotherapy work. You can view parts of the book in Google Books.

Wampold, B.E. & Imel, Z.E. (2015). The great psychotherapy debate: The evidence for what makes psychotherapy work (2^nd edition). New York: Routledge.

In this part of the book, Wampold and Imel reviewed the research literature on the therapeutic alliance. The therapeutic alliance is considered a pan-theoretical construct that is critical to the success of all psychotherapies. Alliance is defined as the: (a) agreement on the goals of therapy, (b) agreement on the tasks of therapy, and (c) the bond between therapist and client. Numerous meta analyses across several decades demonstrate a robust relationship between the alliance and therapy outcome. For example, Horvath and colleagues (2011) conducted a meta analysis with 190 studies that included over 14, 000 clients in which the average effect size was r = .28, indicating a moderate and significant association between alliance and outcomes. Some researchers argued that this is an under-estimation of the alliance outcome relationship. In Horvath and colleagues’ meta analysis, they found no difference between type of psychotherapy (CBT, interpersonal, dynamic) and the alliance – outcome relationship. However, the alliance may work differently in some therapies. For example, in CBT there is some evidence that the collaborative bond is not related to outcomes, but rather the agreement on tasks and goals is related to patient outcomes. This highlights that an alliance cannot happen without techniques; in other words, if techniques fail to engage the patient in the work of therapy, then the technique is not working properly. Wampold and Imel also reviewed the research on whether the therapist or the patient is most influential in developing an alliance. Using sophisticated statistical techniques, they were able to disentangle the effects of therapists and clients. More effective therapists were those who had stronger alliances with patients, and their patients had better outcomes. However, the patient’s contributions to developing an alliance were not significant. Finally, Wampold and Imel reviewed the research on whether early alliance causes good outcomes, or whether early outcomes causes a good alliance. If the latter were true, then the therapeutic alliance would simply be an artifact of early improvement – that is, the alliance would not be necessary for patients to improve. Most of the studies, which were conducted by researchers of different theoretical orientations, concluded that early alliance predicts outcomes and not the other way around. There is some evidence that change in the alliance and change in symptoms have a reciprocal impact – as the alliance grows the patient subsequently improves and as the patient improves the alliance subsequently grows.

Practice Implications

Clearly, developing and maintaining a therapeutic alliance is important to achieving good patient outcomes in psychotherapy. The alliance is not independent from techniques of psychotherapy. In other words, therapists and clients have to agree on the tasks and goals of treatment, and this agreement is fundamental to all treatment modalities offered to patients. If there is no agreement, then therapists have to consider changing course or discussing with the client ways of achieving an agreement. Over and above that, therapists and clients must have some interpersonal bond that is likely underpinned by the therapist’s empathy, positive regard, and concern for the client. The research is clear that it is the therapist who most strongly contributes to the development of an alliance, and so it is the therapist’s responsibility to nurture a positive working alliance.

Tao, K. W., Owen, J., Pace, B. T., & Imel, Z. E. (2015). A meta-analysis of multicultural competencies and psychotherapy process and outcome. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(3), 337-350.

Cultural factors shape health-related beliefs, behaviors and values. For decades, many have argued that therapist multicultural competence shapes the therapy process and affects patient outcomes. Some therapists have poorer outcomes with patients of racial/ethnic minorities compared to White patients. Multicultural competence refers to the ability to work effectively across many groups including minority groups. In 2008, an American Psychological Association Task Force detailed recommendations for multicultural competencies. Multiculturally competent providers are those who: expand their knowledge of their client’s background, use culturally relevant interventions, and gain awareness of their own assumptions and the impact of these on their therapeutic work. In this meta analysis, Tao and colleagues aimed to assess the relationship between multicultural competence in therapists with therapy processes and client outcomes. They reviewed 18 studies that included over 1600 clients, the vast majority of whom identified as a racial/ethnic minority. Therapist multicultural competence was assessed by client self report. Therapist multicultural competence was highly correlated with therapy processes like: therapeutic alliance (r = .61), client satisfaction (r = .72), and session depth (r = .58). The association between therapist multicultural competence and client symptom outcomes were moderate in size but significant (r = .29). A separate analysis showed that the relationship between multicultural competence and therapy process variables (alliance, satisfaction, depth) were significantly larger that associations with client outcomes.

Practice Implications

Therapists’ abilities to integrate aspects of their client’s cultural narrative into their interventions significantly accounted for difference in outcomes. In other words, clients who perceived their therapist as more culturally sensitive had better outcomes. This was likely related to more positive therapeutic processes (i.e., alliance, satisfaction, session depth) between clients and therapist dyads, within which clients perceived the therapist as multiculturally sensitive. A provider’s ability to recognize how their own personal backgrounds influence their own and clients’ behaviors will result in better therapy processes and improved client outcomes.

Author email: k.tao@utah.edu

The Great Psychotherapy Debate: Since in April, 2015 I review parts of The Great Psychotherapy Debate (Wampold & Imel, 2015) in the PPRNet Blog. This is the second edition of a landmark, and sometimes controversial, book that surveys the evidence for what makes psychotherapy work. You can view parts of the book in Google Books.

Wampold, B.E. & Imel, Z.E. (2015). The great psychotherapy debate: The evidence for what makes psychotherapy work (2^nd edition). New York: Routledge.

Some therapists achieve better patient outcomes than others. This seems obvious on the surface and yet few people talk about it, and the research literature seems to downplay or ignore this fact. To illustrate the differing outcomes achieved by therapists, I reviewed a unique study in the September 2013 PPRNet Blog. In that study, 10 cases were randomly selected from 700 therapists (N = 7000 patients), and therapist outcomes were assessed by averaging their patient outcomes. Depending on the presenting problem, as many as 67% of therapists were reliably effective, but as many as 16% were reliably harmful. Clearly therapists differ. Yet psychotherapy research typically treats therapists as if they are uniformly effective. In their chapter, Wampold and Imel review some of the research that estimates the therapist’s effect on outcomes. In other words, what is the impact of the particular therapist on the patient outcomes? Even in studies in which: (a) therapists are selected as experts to provide a specific type of therapy (i.e., CBT, psychodynamic, interpersonal, etc.), (b) therapists are highly trained to be adherent to a manual with repeated supervision, and (c) patients are randomly assigned to treatments, there remains a significant amount of variability in therapist outcomes. Indeed in many studies the therapist effect is as large or larger than the effect of the intervention that is being delivered. In other words, which therapist a patient gets in a treatment study matters just as much or more than what type of therapy they receive. This is also true in medication trials. Better psychiatrists (i.e., those with overall better patient outcomes) who gave a placebo had better patient outcomes than poorer psychiatrists who gave the active medication. A recent large meta analysis found that about 5% of patient outcomes in controlled psychotherapy trials was attributable to the therapist, and the effect is as high as 7% in naturalistic settings. For treatment of PTSD, therapist effects are as high as 12%. On the surface these look like small effects, but in reality they can have a big cumulative impact. Therapists with the best and worst outcomes differ dramatically. For example in one large study, the best performing therapists had a patient response rate of 80% compared to the worst performing therapists who had only 20% of their patients improve. Which therapist would you want a loved one to see?

Practice Implications

Wampold and Imel reported that that therapist effects generally exceed the effects of the specific treatment that is being tested or provided. Some therapists consistently achieve better patient outcomes than others. What are the characteristics and actions of effective therapists? Factors like therapist allegiance to the therapy, empathy, and the ability to form and maintain an alliance with clients appear to differentiate therapists who consistently have good patient outcomes versus those whose patients tend to have poor outcomes.

Angus, L., Watson, J.C., Elliott, R., Schneider, K., & Timulak, L. (2015) Humanistic psychotherapy research 1990–2015: From methodological innovation to evidence-supported treatment outcomes and beyond. Psychotherapy Research, 25, 330-347.

In this wide-ranging review, Angus and colleagues provide an overview of humanistic psychotherapy research from 1990-2015. For this blog I will focus on the efficacy research that they review. Humanistic psychotherapy addresses how people can come to know themselves and each other, and to fulfill their aspirations. This type of therapy emphasizes the personal, interpersonal, and contexts within which clients reflect on their relationships with the self, others, and the world. Carl Rogers is probably the best known early proponent of humanistic client centred psychotherapy. Humanistic psychotherapy focuses on a genuinely empathic therapeutic relationship to promote in-therapy client emotional experiencing, emphasizes meaning-making, and is person-centred. One of the questions raised by Angus and colleagues was: are humanistic psychotherapies efficacious. Here they mainly summarize a previous review by Elliot and colleagues (2013). In a meta analysis of 191 studies and over 14,000 clients, humanistic psychotherapies are associated with large pre to post therapy client change (g = .93) which are maintained over early (< 12 months) and late (> 12 months) follow ups. Further, in 31 studies of over 2,000 clients, those who received humanistic therapies show large gains compared to those who receive no treatment (g = .76). In 100 studies of over 6,000 clients, humanistic therapies had equivalent outcomes to other therapies (g = .01), including CBT (22 studies, g = -.06). Humanistic therapy was most effective for interpersonal/relational trauma, and depression (for which it is considered an evidence supported treatment). There is also good evidence for the efficacy of humanistic therapy for psychotic conditions. However, humanistic therapies may be less effective than CBT for anxiety problems.

Practice Implications

Humanistic psychotherapy that focuses on a genuinely empathic therapeutic relationship that emphasizes client emotional experiencing and meaning-making is efficacious for a number of mental health problems. Rogers argued that non-judgemental acceptance, warmth, and congruence were necessary for good client outcomes, and an accumulating body of research is supporting these early propositions. The evidence for the importance of therapist empathy to improve client outcomes is particularly compelling.

Author email: langus@yorku.ca

Kivlighan, D.M., Goldberg, S.B., Abbas, M., Pace, B.T., …Wampold, B.E. (2015). The enduring effects of psychodynamic treatments vis-à-vis alternative treatments: A multilevel longitudinal meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 1-14.

There is a great deal of evidence that indicates uniform efficacy of a variety of psychotherapies for many common disorders. For example, in the July 2014 PPRNet Blog, I reviewed a meta-analysis comparing 7 psychotherapies for depression indicating no differences between the various treatments in terms of patient outcomes. Nevertheless proponents of cognitive behavioural therapy have claimed superiority to alternative treatments for decades. On the other hand proponents of psychodynamic therapies have argued that these treatments focus on personality change rather than symptoms, and so benefits of psychodynamic therapies will be longer lasting. In this meta analysis, Kivlighan and colleagues put these claims to the test. They selected studies in which a psychodynamic therapy was compared to one or more alternative treatment. Both the psychodynamic therapy and the alternative (most often CBT) had to be judged as “bona fide” therapies by independent raters (i.e., they had to be therapies that were delivered in a manner in which they could be expected to be effective by clients and therapists). Outcomes not only included specific symptoms (e.g., depression), but also non-targeted outcomes (e.g., improved self esteem in a study of treatment of anxiety), and personality outcomes. Effect sizes for outcomes were assessed at post-treatment and also at follow-ups. Twenty five studies directly comparing psychodynamic and non-psychodynamic therapies were included, representing 1690 patients. At post treatment, no significant differences were found between psychodynamic and non-psychodynamic treatments on targeted outcomes, non-targeted outcomes, and personality measures (all gs < .10). There was also no significant or meaningful effect of time to follow up on outcomes, indicating no differences between treatment types at any of the follow up periods.

Practice Implications

Psychodynamic and non-psychodynamic treatments were equally effective at post treatment and at follow ups for all outcomes, including personality variables. This challenges the belief that psychodynamic treatments uniquely affect personality and have longer lasting effects compared to other treatments. It also challenges the notion that CBT (by far the most common comparison treatment) is a superior therapy for patient outcomes. Pan-theoretical psychotherapy factors (client contributions, expectations, therapeutic alliance) may be more promising factors in understanding the long term benefits of psychotherapy. 

Author email: kivlighan@wisc.edu

Mallinckrodt, B. & Jeong, J. (2015). Meta-analysis of client attachment to therapist: Associations with working alliance and pretherapy attachment. Psychotherapy, 52, 134-139.

Attachment theory has become one of the most important conceptualizations of affect regulation and interpersonal relationships. John Bowlby and others suggested that attachment behaviour is hard wired so that infants can gain proximity to caregivers which is necessary for infant survival. Repeated interactions with caregivers coupled with the variety of caregiver responses (i.e., available, unavailable, or inconsistently available caregiving) lead to children developing internal working models of attachment. These models become the basis for attachment styles in adulthood. Attachment security in adults is associated with the ability to give and receive caring and love, and to adaptively regulate emotions. Attachment avoidance is associated with a tendency to dismiss relationships as important, and to downregulate emotional experiences. Attachment anxiety is associated with a preoccupation with relationships, and to upregulated emotional experiences. In a previous meta analysis, client general attachment security was modestly but significantly associated with higher levels of therapeutic alliance (r = .17). In another meta analysis, higher client general attachment anxiety was associated with poorer client outcomes (r = -.22). In this meta analysis, Mallinckrodt and Jeong assessed whether client attachment to the therapist was associated with client general attachment style and with the therapeutic alliance with the therapist. They included 13 studies representing 1051 client-therapist dyads. Client pre-therapy general attachment avoidance and anxiety were negatively associated with client-therapist attachment security, and the effects were modest but significant (r = -.12, r = -.13). Client-therapist attachment security was positively associated with therapeutic alliance (r = .76) and client-therapist attachment avoidance was negatively associated with therapeutic alliance (r = -.63), and these effects were large.

Practice Implications

Client pre-therapy attachment styles appear to have an impact on their attachment to the therapist. A client pre-therapy attachment style characterized by preoccupation with relationships and an over-emphasis on emotions (i.e., attachment anxiety) will likely lead to similar behaviors and preoccupations in the relationship with the therapist. Mallinckrodt and Jeong suggest that this might be the basis for transference-related phenomenon that therapists and clients experience in the therapeutic relationship. That is, client attachment anxiety and avoidance likely interfere with developing a secure attachment to the therapist. Further, client attachment avoidance with regard to the therapist may result in lower therapeutic alliance, which is key to achieve improved patient outcomes. Despite these challenges, therapists who can facilitate a secure psychotherapy attachment experience for their clients are more likely to see improvements in their clients’ functioning.

Author email: bmallinc@utk.edu